None Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 17

None - Essay Example This is the only reason why the US has increased the use of sonar in the West Coast. The environmental groups have been very disturbed by the use of sonar and they want the US to stop disturbing the marine life and especially the Whales. The sound waves emitted during a sonar operation disturbs almost all the marine creatures, this has serious repercussions on dolphins and Whales. The dwindling of dolphins and whales is primarily because of such sonar operations carried by the US time and time again. It is high time to stop this as there are clear evidences that prove that the dwindling is all because of such sonar operations carried out by the US. The harmful noise emitted by the sonar directly affects the eardrums of the marine mammals and this in turn alters their diving habits resulting in their premature death. There are several other proofs that show that sonar operations harm the marine mammals and therefore it is high time to stop all such operations that harm marine mammals. The rapid depletion of Whales is a major cause of worry for all the people across the globe. It is our responsibility to safeguard the interest of every living organism and we have certainly failed in doing so time and time again. The Whale stock is being over exploited time and time again and the same is leading to dwindling of Whales. In the year 1931 as many as 22 nations signed the Geneva Convention to bring Whaling under control but this has not been done even to date. This treaty was modified with new protocols in the year 1938 and 1945 and the same served as a platform for International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling signed in the US in the year 1946. An International Whaling commission was established in order to safeguard the Whales. The dwindling of Whales could not have been solved with a better way than establishing a separate entity to safeguard

Discuss how recent changes in the law may impact on the tourism and Essay

Discuss how recent changes in the law may impact on the tourism and hospitality industry - Essay Example A series of constraints can appear causing severe delays to the completion of the relevant projects. Current paper focuses on the effects of law on the airline industry – emphasis is given on the aviation law of UK – as influenced from the European Union law. It is concluded that the update of legal rules related – either directly or indirectly – to the airline industry has affected the performance of the specific industrial sector. The character of the relationship between this industry and the law cannot be clearly specified – being characterized by benefits and drawbacks. However, despite the delays that the changes in the law have caused to the development of airline industry – in the context described below – still, it is necessary that the relevant measures are supported both by the entrepreneurs and the public. After a transition period, the benefits of these initiatives will be made clear – even if currently the introduction of the relevant legal rules is not fully justified. The needs of various industries in regard to their regulation can be differentiated. The characteristics of each industry and the level of its interaction with the public are usually of high importance in order to decide on the form of the regulatory framework developed for the particular sector. Under these terms, the needs of each industry in terms of law are defined by the following criteria: a) the position of the industry within the local economy, b) the structure of the operational activities of the industry’s firms, c) the practices followed in regard to the regulation of similar industries in the context of the international community, d) the rules developed by international bodies and which are binding for a specific industrial sector – for instance the rules of the European Union which need to be promoted within all member states. In the case of the airline industry, the elements of the legal framework used for the

Operations Managment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Operations Managment - Essay Example Through the utilization of new technological applications, the said process of recruiting shall be given the most important development it is expected to take to cater to the needs of the growing number of applicants. Computers and the benefits that it provides the society has made the present generation of humanity what it needs in terms of technological assistance. Along with this, several other supporting programs were then produced to be able to give answer to other demands of the society from computing operations. Yes, it just gets better every time. Some programs are created for individuals, while some are created especially for business companies, which are controlling the global economic stability of the society today. All these programs are considered assistance for users for them to be able to have better access to the technological innovations brought about by computing operations. According to an article entitled "Computer-Tool or Tyrant", Computers, through the history of mankind have provided the society with the necessary assistance at times even more than that as it continuously develop for better applications. This claim is especially true when the talk is all about companies who are dealing with multitasking in their daily activities. The storage of the files that are needed to be kept for record could not be done through the traditional file-shelves system. Hence, the introduction of programs and operating systems brought so much ease to this so called corporal responsibilities and duties. In this paper, a suggested process of operations management using the computer office operations shall be presented so as to assist in the process of shortening the time by which an institution approves the application of hopefuls who want to enroll in Marine Officer Programs offered by the organization. Through the said process to be suggested, it is expected that the process of application would become more efficient and the process of approval be less time consuming thus allowing the personnel of the organization to put their attention to more important things such as improving the whole program for the enrollees. The Importance of Knowing How OS Works Living in such a technologically driven world, it could not be denied that the interest of people in the developing systems of computing operations is also growing. As the computing operations and applications develop, the demands of the society from the benefits that it provides for the individuals and the large organizational companies also increases. The discussion that shall be presented herein Technology too, controls the present situation of the global economy. In fact, the internet applications have completely revolutionized the processes by which trade systems are operating in the current business industry. Certainly, it could be noticed that the production of operating systems that are ready to provide business entrepreneurs with the assistance that they need to be able to cope up with the global competition of industries, the global economy tends to grow even bigger and more stable. The discussion that would be presented in this paper then shall give a clear vision on how Linux is able to provide the said needs of companies worldwide. What is it that makes Linux one of the most reliable operating

Analysis of the Movie Exorcist Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analysis of the Movie Exorcist - Essay Example The documentary-like and gritty feel of the film also gives an added realistic mood and that might signify the reality of everyday life. Damien Karras is the main character who is both a psychiatrist and a priest. He is depicted as a torn man with doubts that are wiped away once he confronts the Devil. The scene where he visits Regan and records her growling voice while speaking to each other in Latin is probably the only humorously peculiar scene in the entire movie The trend towards more graphic violence in movies parallels the transition of the general viewing audience to a higher shock level. The audience is shocked by physical harm for instance fist fights or slapping, movie monsters like demon Pazuzu, urination scenes and vomit, gratuitous blood scenes. These scenes are supported with green projectile vomit, spinning heads, shaking beds and gross makeup. The movie is full of graphic domestic violence, documentary film violence (executions and accidents) and the desecration of the Virgin Mary. Expansive landscapes of death and demons walking like horrible spiders add the impression of the Beyond. From the emergence of the Hammer horrors on films have shocked the audience further by the fact that evil is so often allowed to triumph at the end of more recent films is as much connected with this change in the tolerance threshold as with the incidence of a darker, more pessimistic outlook on life. Sound effects play an important role in heating up the atmosphere of constant horror.  For instance, the slingshot sound effect and shadows create the impression of something terrible and unknown.

Giovanni pierluigi de Palestrina Research Paper

Giovanni pierluigi de Palestrina - Research Paper Example Sante was his family name (Pyne, 2008). Palestrina dedicated much of his time and effort to teaching, and was basically the founding father of Rome’s Italian school of composition. Perhaps the credit should be given to Goudimel, Palestrina’s teacher, though in the past the aged Roman school is strongly associated with the name of Palestrina (Ferris, 2008). This research paper discusses the life and works of one of the greatest composers in the history of music, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. There are very few available historical documents that recount the childhood of Palestrina, but by 1537 he became a choirboy in Rome. He returned to Palestrina in 1544 and became an organist and choirmaster in the town’s church. The previous bishop of Palestrina, Pope Julius III, chose Palestrina to be the chapel master in St. Peter’s in 1511 (Tapper & Goetschius, 2001). The first known work of Palestrina was a compilation of four masses in 1554. These proved the skill of Palestrina in polyphony and counterpoint, and gained his status as the leading composer of holy songs in Rome (Tapper & Goetschius, 2001). However, Pope Paul IV felt obliged to discharge Palestrina from the convention, primarily because Palestrina was married. Nevertheless, he still became St. John’s chapel master; he also became the chapel master at Santa Maria Maggiore in 1561; and he was at last placed back in his previous post at the Vatican in 1571 (Sarti, 2009). Palestrina passed away in 1594. The music of Palestrina should be analyzed within the framework of the catholic reformation happening during his composition days. Before Palestrina, songs used in churches had a tendency to wander away from the religious doctrine that it was founded upon; it usually espouses its own ideals, more for amusement than encouragement. The Council of Trent even tried to get rid of music from religious practice on the whole, until the recital of Missa Papae Marcelli in

Leaders in the Local Church Essay Example for Free

Leaders in the Local Church Essay Lay leaders can simply be defined as persons chosen from the congregation by ordained leaders to serve as helpers performing such duties as may be delegated or assigned to them in accordance to their church ordinances. More and more ministers are finding themselves weighed down by the demands of the ministry. They are thus unable to be effective in meeting the changing needs of their flock. This has created a need to have different other people taking off some of the less sensitive responsibilities from the ordained clergies’ hands. The concept of lay leadership is however not just a modern day phenomenon; it is deeply rooted in the Bible. Deuteronomy 1:9-13 gives an account in which Moses appoints leaders to take off from him some of the responsibilities that were threatening to overwhelm him. Similarly in the book of 1 kings 19:19, Elijah acquires an attendant in the person of Elisha to serve as a helper in his duties as a prophet. The Apostle Paul also surrounded himself with spiritual people like Timothy and Titus to mention a few to whom he delegated different duties in his mission to preach the good news to the gentiles. The clearest illustration of the significance of lay leadership is however to be found in the New Testament book of the Acts of the Apostles Chapter 6 form verse 1 onwards. In this account, the Apostles as well as the entire group found it wise to appoint seven Godly men to take over responsibilities that were important but did not warrant the attention of the Apostles. In this paper, different lessons will be gleaned from the above scriptures and many others to help in the understanding of the issue at hand. Church leaders are different from either organizational or political leaders and only leaders who seek Gods grace and lead by the grace of the Almighty will be able to maintain the Satan inflicted jolts that characterize today’s ministry of the word of God. 1 The church is undergoing enormous statistical growth but the same is not being experienced in discipleship. Leadership of the church requires individuals who are able to rise above their individual capacities and seek Gods guidance. Shallow leadership is the reason why the church today is struggling to meet the seemingly insurmountable challenges. 2 The church needs godly leaders who are able to fully submit to Jesus Christ and be in complete communion with the Creator. Leaders, who can be disciple makers, honor God and be able to fulfill His Will. There are times when Gods reassuring gift in leadership is obviated making the leadership journey long, arduous, bumpy and jerky akin to rides across rocky mountains. At times the leadership might seem long, dry and desolate often punctuated with seasons when we feel that our leadership is devoid of Gods assistance. It is these experiences that call for insistence on Gods reassuring grace and guidance. Developing leadership in the church is no mean treat as it not only requires leaders to develop a strong rapport with the creator for their own souls but also for the souls of the followers of Christ. God’s spirit reassures, inspires, instructs and guides leaders in the Church as they take that long arduous journey to sainthood and spiritual maturity as our creator commanded. However, it is not easy to develop leaders in the church without succinctly analyzing the philosophy of spiritual leadership. Through, spiritual instruction, God used criticism of leadership or trials to stimulate spiritual revival or to inspire fresh visionary leadership for the future ministry of the word of God. The Biblical desert trek under the leadership of Moses was such an instance when God used the desolate desert to create new frontiers in leadership. By working through the hands of servant leaders, a new vision is created to circumvent, surmount or wade through the challenges required in developing a spiritual oversight and even in building new teams in the church. 1 ii. Importance of Leadership Development Strategies for Training Leaders in the Local Church. Training leaders in the church is an ongoing process that cannot be done haphazardly. It requires a leadership development strategy that helps in identifying, recruiting and training potential lay leaders in any church. The health, the growth and the success of any church or its local branches is solely dependent on the availability of effective and efficient church leadership program that not only inspires the congregation to spiritual; maturity but also discovers and builds the innate potentials of leadership and service in others. Consistency in training of lay leaders may well determine the level of growth and spiritual well being of entire churches. Humanistic philosophies permeate from our culture and these in turn affect the strategies we use in developing leadership in churches. These humanistic philosophies spread a desire that we should be whoever we want to be. Contrarily, God disdains such attempts and instead calls upon humanity to be as his only begotten Son Christ was. This means that good leadership is not a result of a personal ambition but a Godly desire that can only be achieved when leaders are trained to act as our Creator instructed us to act. That is why good leaders can only be shepherds but not saviors; they can only be leaders but not lords and guides to the congregation but not gods of the people of God. 1 In the book of Acts of the Apostles chapter 6, the process of choosing the seven men was done prayerfully and the chosen men were dependable men filled with the spirit. It is important therefore that the process follow the biblical example. Otherwise, when leadership strategies in the church deviate from the Gods commands and instructions on good leadership and instead focus on improving on human efforts alone, spiritual leaders achieve positions of worldly power but not the grace of God. Strategies for leadership should only train leaders to carry out their spiritual obligations as a reflection of what Christ wanted. It is testament today guidelines for church leadership are being drawn from secular platforms without a succinct review of the Christian authoritative text for standard protocols for servant leadership. Because of this reason church leaders are being removed from a worldly instituted office and recycled in various capacities that are only temporary in nature while ideally spiritual leaders are lifetime learners who are obligated by the scriptures to offer lifetime guidance to the flock. It is only by the grace of the Lord that leaders can be able to learn and consequently act as leaders with a spiritual disposition that is created only by the Holy Spirit. In this stride, spiritual leaders should be confident in God but not exhibit self confidence, they should not only know men but also know God. In making decisions they should seek Gods will and not solely rely on their own human capability in making decisions. In Spiritual leadership by J. Oswald Sanders, spiritual leaders should be able to humble in leadership and not be overly ambitious, they should never seek personal rewards but they should love God and other with all their powers. One who enjoys command, treasures independent leadership and creates his own methods of leadership can only be said to be driven by fleshly ambitions. On the other hand, Godly leaders delight in their obedience to God and follow His instructions while shunning the lusts of the flesh. They do not treasure independence in leadership but tend to depend in God and follow His examples.

Is Keeping Animals In A Zoo Cruel?

Is Keeping Animals In A Zoo Cruel? Until recently, the existence of zoos in our society was never something which we thought twice about. Zoos were widely accepted as educational and entertaining institutions. Children, and adults, love seeing animals, and a visit to the zoo has always been something we look forward to. Gradually, however, discussion has aroused about the morality of keeping animals, and other creatures in captivity, as animals have rights such as we do. There are around 430 zoos in Britain alone and 10,000 worldwide. Conditions vary greatly, with the worst being nothing more than concrete prisons holding very distressed animals. (Born Free Charity). This quotation shows the insensitivity of the proprietors of such establishments and gives us a clear picture of the conditions in which creatures are kept. Rather than encouraging animals to thrive in natural settings, zoos place very unnatural boundaries on their residents. For example, in zoos, polar bears are usually confined to spaces that are only around one-millionth the size of their minimum home range in the wild. Animals who stray across large distances in nature often develop zoo chosis in captivation which is similar to dementia in humans. Typical behaviours resulting from boredom and distress when placed in zoo enclosures, are endlessly pacing or swimming in circles. Animals have evolved from nature, just as humans, and each belongs undisturbed in its own natural habitat. To remove these animals from what they are used to against their will is immoral. As humans, we must treat animals humanely in our role as stewards of the earth. It is therefore unacceptable that animals in zoos under our care, are suffering from neglect and early death, through distress and health problems. In the wild, creatures such as the ones found in zoos are free to roam without restraint and interact with other species. Whereas, in captive conditions they are only able to mix with their own species, sometimes only being a few of each species. If these animals do not get on with the others in the enclosure, they have no way of escaping each others company, and animals, like us, have personalities and forge friendships and rivalries. Furthermore, animals do not gain the necessary skills for survival in zoos and so will never be able to be reintroduced back into the wild and survive. Therefore they will have to live an enclosed, cramped lifestyle entirely dependent on humans who do not always care for them appropriately, for the entirety of their lives. On this note, Attachment relationships between animals are often studied by separating pack animals and recording their subsequent behaviour. Studies of primates have shown that separation results in changes of behaviour that are symptomatic of both psychological and physiological stress. Because of this, it is clear that in order to maintain physical and psychological well being in animals, it is vital that animals which are used to being together with animals of their kind should not be isolated from one another. In many zoos, it is felt necessary that animals should be alone as it saves costs and ensures there are no conflicts between them. Zoos are therefore knowingly causing the animals psychological and physiological trauma. Animals kept in zoos have no privacy; they are continually watched by the public and have little enclosed space where they can hide. Zoo animals develop anxious behaviours if they are always in the public gaze. Being stared at all the time can be predatory and threatening. Another strange species staring at you or enproaching in your environment is disconcerting and agitating for wild animals in the same way that a tiger coming into your house and staring at you would be not just threatening, but simply terrifying. This in turn can lead to aggression and distress in the animals. Even when the animals are not disturbed by human presences watching over them, there is constant noise of other creatures and maintenance works on the zoo (e.g. Tractors). They will get no peace and quiet. This is not natural for any animal. They should be able to have time on their own to relax in harmony. Zoo Keepers and many employees of zoos do not treat the animals living within the exhibitions with enough compassion or care. A San Diego Zookeeper described an incident in which an African Elephant was beaten for two days with axe handles, as a way of motivating the animal to put on a display for visitors. This kind of treatment is extremely vindictive and clearly demonstrates how in some zoos, the living beings are not treated as well as they should be. Even though they are given all the necessities for life and they have a veterinary surgeon on hand at all times, the animals only get enough to get by, and no more. After all, zoos are a money making business. They often scrimp and save at the expense of the animals well being and comfort. Large animals such as elephants are often subjected to cruelty above and beyond that of smaller animals. A study has proven that in a certain American zoo, the elephants there were dying at a faster rate than they were breeding, as a result of dis ease spread by the lack of space and dirty cages. The exhibition of animals in captivity tells an impressionable public that cruelty to animals can be condoned. Many zoos claim that they are of high educational benefit, and although some visitors only spend around two minutes at each inclosure, using the animals for entertainment rather than for instructive matters. Although, children do get to see animals and experience how they live, which they wouldnt get the chance to do if animals were only in the wild. Zoos have to educate the public about the value of animals so that people understand the importance of conservation. After a fun trip to the zoo, visitors leave with a newfound awareness and perceptive about animals. How are they going to discover these interesting facts if they dont get to see the creatures? Zoos give people an appreciation for animals. They need to see, listen to and smell an elephant to gain love and respect for the creature. Viewing an animal on TV does not give a person the same effect as seeing it first hand does. An arguable advantage of having zoos present in todays society is that many endangered species will be protected and will refrain from becoming extinct. Zoos promote the awareness of animals that are being wiped out. This would allow for people to help fund the repopulation of those animals. If more people are aware of new animals on the endangered species list, there is more of a chance that researchers will get more funds. But endangered species may not gain as much support and attention of the crowds as people are only usually interested in popular species like Lions. Furthermore there is some debate because of the inadequate gene pool of a species in zoos. This could, lead to inbreeding which would then create mutations and defects in the offspring. In conclusion, animals are born wild and therefore should live and die wild. It is wrong that wild creatures should be kept in enclosures in zoos as they do not get to behave naturally: a lion cannot hunt for its prey, or experience the nobility of living with other lions in a pride. My overall view is that keeping animals in zoos is extremely cruel as they are not free to convey their natural way of living, whether it is to roam in a large area, to breed with a partner of their choice, or to kill their own prey. The animals are troubled every minute of the day by people observing them, something which, in the wild, would hint great danger. All of these factors contribute to my strong sensitivity to this topic of treatise. Word count- 1310 Sources www.bornfree.org http://www.captiveanimals.org/zoos/zfact1.htm Pros and Cons : A Debaters Handbook [Paperback] published 1999 http://www.idebate.org/debatabase/topic_details.php?topicID=1 Trees in Celtic Culture and Art: An Analysis Trees in Celtic Culture and Art: An Analysis The use of yew, rowan, birch and Scots pine trees in Scottish Celtic mythology, legend, symbolism, religion and literature Preface Celtic society was dominated by its links to nature and the spirituality of the world around it. Of these natural objects, trees represented the ultimate in spirituality and wisdom. This is not only due to the life giving properties of trees within the forest-strewn wilderness of Europe at the time, but also because of the supposed wisdom and power that trees offered people. Their longevity, practicality, power and importance within Druidism means that trees, and in particular yew trees, formed the basis for literature, religion, myth, legend and symbolism within Scottish Celtic culture. Introduction Trees play an important role in Irish and Scottish Celtic traditions in terms of mysticism, legend, medicinal remedies and religion and literature. The most famous example of this is probably the Celtic notion of the Tree of Life, a tree that symbolizes the connection that links all the worlds in Celtic mythology. The Irish Celts often took this even further with each chieftain having their own specifically grown sacred tree that would allow the clan leader to stay in contact with the Otherworld and his ancestors (Conway, 2000, p. 69). This essay will examine these concepts with particular emphasis on the importance of yew, rowan, birch and Scots pine trees in Scottish Celtic mythology, legend, symbolism, religion and literature. The first section will look at the history of trees within Celtic mythology and literature. Sections two and three will then examine the importance of trees in Scottish Celtic myth, legend, symbolism, religion and literature. History of Trees in Celtic Mythology and Literature The importance of trees in Celtic mythology is linked to their belief that all living things were spiritual and mystical beings. Whilst other cultures only saw animals as being spiritual, the Celts attached spiritual meaning to both animals and plants. Trees were also initially important because they provided food, warmth and housing for people, and therefore were seen as a sort of sustainer of life. The Celtic landscape of Northern Europe was also one where thick forests dominated the landscape. All of this contributed to trees becoming extremely important in Celtic history. Trees have also been used from the very early stages of Celtic existence as a type of alphabet and calendar known as Ogham. This intricate pattern of carved grooves has different trees representing different months (Matthews, 2001, pp. 6-8). Trees played a part in helping the sick in a physical way as well as a spiritual way. The oils and barks of different trees were used to treat illnesses ranging from abscesses and bronchitis to general disinfectant. The trees were seen as having great wisdom and being linked to both this world and the Otherworld (Conway, 2000, pp. 39-41). Trees were part of the magic of the time, and not just in Celtic culture. Throughout Europe there were examples and symbols of trees as powerful creatures. In Germany the rowan tree root could be formed into a humanlike image called an Alraun that could house a spirit and be communicated with (Greer, 2003, p. 19). The birch and yew trees were also mentioned extensively within the old Germanic language as part of the runes within Anglo-Saxon culture (Greer, 2003, p. 63, 149). It is clear that trees and plants have played an important part in language, culture and literature since the beginnings of the Scottish Celtic culture. In fact, the belief in the power and spirituality of plants can be traced right back to the Celtic religion and culture at its foundation. The very term Druidism is a testament to the Celtic worship of trees and plants. This is because Druid as a word is formed from a root DR. This root signifies a tree – in particular the oak – in several of the Aryan languages. Therefore, the very fabric of Celtic religion is based upon the sacred tree (Squire, 2003, p. 33). The original word for church at the time, kirk, was in fact derived from quercus – a type of oak. This species of oak was particularly sacred, and therefore its name became the basis for the place of worship that has been transformed through language to the modern church of today’s world (Thiselton-Dyer, 2004, p. 22). Trees were also important for warding off evil spirits and protecting the land. They protected the land physically through their thick branches that provided wood, shelter and shade from the elements (Davidson, 1988, pp. 13-14). However, they also provided protection from the evil of witches and other demons. The yew tree was particularly painful and disliked by the witches – mainly because it had an association with churchyards and being planted in such places. This gave the tree such holy power that it could take away the abilities and evil of witches (Thiselton-Dyer, 2004, p. 44). Trees could also be inhabited by spirits, which meant they were important vessels to link the current world with the spirit world. Trees were seen as a form that ghosts and spirits could take in order to contact the living, and this was something to be both worshipped and feared in equal measure. The trees were often seen as ‘semi-tangible’ objects that were not as vastly important as the highest gods, but they were symbolic of the demi-gods and along with animals were far more important than many of the other elements and objects around them (Macbain, 2003, p. 33, 37). The other element that made trees so sacred and valued was their longevity. Trees could live hundreds or even thousands of years, which made the people of the time see them as something almost eternal. They were timeless and ageless in many ways, and their longevity also gave them supposed wisdom. Man would decay and crumble, but the trees would live on and gather knowledge throughout the centuries. This is another reason why they were revered and worshipped as sacred objects (Murray and Card, 1998, p. 8). This section has outlined some of the background reasons and history as to why trees were sacred in the Celtic culture. The next section will look at specific examples of trees in Celtic myth, legend and symbolism. Trees in Myth, Legend and Symbolism Perhaps the most important elements of tree symbolism, legend and myth within Celtic society are the calendar and alphabet of trees and the Tree of Life. The tree calendar has 13 of the 25 tree letters as names for months. For example, birch is the symbol for new starts and therefore represents November – the first month in the Celtic calendar (Murray and Card, 1998, pp. 8-9). The yew, rowan and ash trees were also included in this alphabet (Crews, 2005). Each letter or tree symbol within the alphabet means something quite different and symbolizes a certain attribute within human existence. One famous poem and story shows the power of trees in Celtic myth and legend. ‘Big MacVurich and the Monster’ tells how the whelp of a monster is captured by MacVurich and in order to get it back the monster must build a house for MacVurich with timbers in the roof. The beast agrees, but will not use certain types of wood. Whilst the house is built and it seems that MacVurich has what he wants, the beast has in fact denied MacVurich fertility (wild fig), safe passage to the next life (yew) and protection against illness (white poplar) amongst others. The fact that these trees were left out of the construction is significant for it means that MacVurich would not have a good life – the monster was taking revenge through the power of trees (Murray and Card, 1998, pp. 19-20). Trees were also symbolically important for culture and art at the time, as they were the surroundings and inspiration that gave rise to the art of the time. Celtic artists worked predominantly with metal, and their works focused on the animals and plants around them (Green, 1998, p. 1). Symbols such as this show how the tree binds the worlds together, from the living world to the Otherworld and beyond. The tree is the link to all worlds with its roots deep in the ground and its branches far into the sky (Green, 1992, p. 25). The tree of life is also a symbol for the fact that trees provided protection, food, shelter, fuel and warmth for people and animals throughout the forest-strewn landscape. The trees were the objects that gave people the greatest resources that could sustain them, and therefore practically they were a life force (Green, 1998, pp. 3-4). Trees could also symbolize power and political force, as reported by the Romans in their fights with Druids. The Druids would use the forests to gather their clans together, communicate with each other using the branches and fight back. This is why the Romans, who did not specifically believe in the divine power of trees, cut down as many trees as possible to stop the Druids. This was both a practical and spiritual measure, given the significance of trees to the Druids (Heinz, 2008, pp. 139-140). The yew tree has perhaps the greatest significant and myth surrounding it, and even today has an element of mysticism around it due to its old age and the dwindling numbers of yew trees in Europe. Yew trees are in fact poisonous, and so they were used as parts of weapons within Celtic times. They also symbolize the dream-state, as the poisonous vapours from a yew tree can make a person become light-headed or even hallucinate. The tree is in fact given thirty three different titles and meanings in the 12th century Book of Leinster (Heinz, 2008, p.151). However, the most common meaning associated with the yew tree is death, rebirth and regeneration. As one of the longest living trees it was a symbol for the continuation and renewal of life (LaFey, 1999). The birch tree is also associated with birth or inception. The birch is the beginning of all things in the link between life and death and is used in the training of ‘beginning’ for Druids. The rowan tree is seen as a magical tree that grew food of the gods. The berries of the rowan tree were highly sacred and protected. The pine tree represents hardiness and continuation in life – a characteristic of the evergreen tree (LaFey, 1999). All of these trees and many more played a vital role in the development of Celtic myth, legend and symbolism. The next section will move on to look at the importance of trees within the religion and literature of the Celtic tradition. Trees in Religion and Literature As already discussed, trees were an important part of the Druid religion during the time of the Celts. Not only were trees the location for gatherings of Druids, but the trees themselves were part of the Druid religion. The birch was used to train those in the religion, and the carvings of the alphabet from trees were used for communication. Even the calendar that was observed by the Celtic Druids was based upon the tree alphabet. Much of the church of the Druids was based around the sacred importance of trees. Even special houses for religious and spiritual purposes were constructed out of vast quantities of wood to add a sacred element to the construction. Basic houses such as the Pimperne Down round-house used over 200 trees for construction for both practicality and religious advantage (Green, 1996, pp. 195-197). However, literature also contains a number of tree references and stories. In a practical sense, trees were obviously important in the physical creation of stories with wood and then eventually paper. However, before paper the use of trees for carving stories upon was commonplace. The tree alphabet characters were easy to inscribe and were carved upon wood, and such tree tablets served as early writing surfaces within Celtic society. The particular use of trees and the order of characters or letters often depended on when and where the particular trees shed or grew leaves and spread within a particular area. This is why certain areas put more emphasis on the importance of yew or rowan trees above birch or pine trees, and vice versa (Crews, 2005). One of the most famous of these tree stories is the ‘Battle of the Trees’, reworked by Robert Graves. It shows the rise of the belief in trees and the rise of a class of people devoted to agriculture from those who were merely priests within the Bronze Age. The story shows trees and plants as not only being part of the ruling of the nations, but also spirits that contribute to the decision making of who is to lead. Trees are the wisdom behind the power that rules within Celtic society (Rosenfeld, 2005, pp. 196+). There are references to all the various trees within texts and literature throughout Celtic culture. The rowan tree is mentioned extensively in the Dindsenchas or History of the Names of Places. This book tells of a female Druid called Dreco who wounded a man called Cethern (a word derived from rowan) with a rowan spear. Incantations took place when the weapon was used, showing that the rowan was more of a magical weapon than just a physical weapon formed from the tree (Blamires, 1997, p. 77). The birch tree can be used to call upon different beings such as the Daghdha. This rough looking man with unkempt appearance, long hair and a large belly can be used with the birch to help you understand the trees more effectively and communicate with the newly born and the Otherworld (Blamires, 1997, pp. 71-72). The yew is written about more than any other tree and is worshipped as two of the five sacred trees within the Druid religion. It is used to prepare magical literature, wands and in divination. As the oldest of the trees it holds more wisdom than any other and is used for the most important tasks within Druidism. The yew has no special significance in the sense of being about one object or element – the yew simply is and always will be in the same way that God or other worshipped entities whose existence is merely enough to understand the greatness of their power (Blamires, 1997, p. 210). The holiness of the trees and wood can also be seen with fines that had to be paid if you damaged trees such as the oak, yew, ash pine or apple tree. These ‘lords’ of the wood were sacred and could only be used for certain things. Any damage to these trees meant a fine and potentially replanting a tree to replace the one damaged. Rowan and birch were classed as lower trees within this system, and a lesser fine needed to be paid. However, all the trees were seen as precious commodities not only physically but spiritually. This is why trees were the inspiration and object of worship for so many within Celtic society and culture (Delahunty, 2002, pp. 16-18). Conclusion Trees have a long and rich history within Scottish Celtic society in a variety of areas. The reverence of trees came about because of the huge prevalence of trees within Europe at the time of the Celts. These trees provided the life force, shelter and sustenance for people to live their lives. As this developed along with the Druid religion, trees gained a spiritual significance along with the other elements of nature. Animals and weather are important within Celtic tradition, but trees are the basis of the Druid religion and Celtic myth. The concepts of the Tree of Life and the Ogham tree alphabet and calendar show how trees penetrate all areas of Celtic life. Different trees have different meanings, with the rowan and birch trees symbolizing magic and birth respectively. However, the most important tree within the Celtic tradition is the yew tree. This tree represents the highest power of trees. Its longevity, poisonous properties and ghostly shape make it the most revered and feared of all trees whose existence is as important as any modern God. This fear and reverence of trees as a link between worlds inspired the art, literature, legends, symbolism and behavior of Scottish Celtic society. Bibliography Blamires, S., 1997. Celtic Tree Mysteries: Practical Druid Magic and Divination. Llewellyn Worldwide. Conway, D.J., 2000. Advanced Celtic Shamanism. United States: The Crossing Press. Crews, J., 2005. Forest and tree symbolism in folklore. (Online). Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y9882e/y9882e08.htm (Accessed 13th January 2009). Davidson, H.R.E., 1988. Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe: Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. Delahunty, J.L., 2002. 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